Bulletin of the Technical Committee on Learning Technology (ISSN: 2306-0212) |
Authors:
Noorul Shuhadah Osman1, Ahmad Fauzi Mohd Ayub1, Nurul Nadwa Zulkifli2and Jazihan Mahat1
1: Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia；2: Universiti Putra Malaysia Sarawak, Bintulu, Malaysia,
Abstract:
This study investigates the effectiveness of an augmented reality (AR)-based learning module (ISOMAR) on student achievement and motivation in Isometric Transformations. Using a Design and Development Research (DDR) approach, the study involved 95 Form 2 students from Malaysia, who were randomly assigned to three groups: the ISOMAR group (AR-based module), the ISOMAX group (non-AR module), and a control group (conventional teaching method). Student achievement was assessed via pre- and post-tests, while motivation was measured using the Instructional Materials Motivation Survey (IMMS), which evaluates four constructs: attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction. ANCOVA, with pre-test scores as covariates, revealed a significant difference in achievement across groups, with the ISOMAR group outperforming both the ISOMAX and control groups. MANOVA results further indicated that students in the ISOMAR group reported significantly higher levels of attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction. These findings suggest that AR-based learning can effectively enhance both motivation and academic performance in learning Isometric Transformations.
Keywords: Achievement, Learning module, Augmented reality, Motivation.
I. INTRODUCTION
Geometry, as a fundamental branch of mathematics, requires students to develop strong spatial reasoning and visualization skills to understand abstract concepts. One particularly challenging topic is Isometric Transformations, which requires learners to mentally visualize changes in the position and orientation of objects [4, 5]. This cognitive demand often leads to misconceptions, reduced interest, and low motivation, especially when instruction relies on traditional, teacher-centered approaches.
Previous achievement test analysis among Form 2 students in a Malaysian secondary school revealed substantial difficulties in Isometric Transformations, particularly in rotation, reflection, and translation tasks. More than 80% of students demonstrated weaknesses in both procedural and conceptual understanding, with most test items recording difficulty index values between 0.00 and 0.20, categorized as “too hard.” These findings suggest that students may continue to struggle with Isometric Transformations when conventional teaching approaches are primarily used [45].
Motivation is a key factor in mathematics learning, as it directly affects students’ engagement, persistence, and academic performance [6, 7, 8, 9]. Previous studies have consistently shown that students with higher learning motivation tend to achieve better in mathematics [10, 11, 12]. In geometry learning, students often experience low motivation when abstract concepts are presented through static and teacher-centred instructional approaches. Difficulties in visualizing spatial relationships may further reduce students’ interest and confidence in solving Isometric Transformations problems.
The challenges associated with mastering geometric concepts are further reflected in Malaysian students’ performance in international assessments such as TIMSS and PISA, where achievement in geometry and mathematical literacy remains below the OECD average [17, 18, 19]. Compared with students in many developed educational contexts, Malaysian students continue to demonstrate weaker performance on geometry-related mathematical tasks [17, 18, 19]. These findings highlight the urgent need for more innovative and effective instructional strategies that not only improve conceptual understanding but also enhance students’ motivation and active participation in mathematics learning.
In many contemporary educational settings, technology-supported and exploratory learning environments are increasingly integrated into mathematics classrooms to facilitate interactive and student-centered learning experiences. In contrast, mathematics instruction in many Malaysian secondary schools still relies heavily on teacher-centered approaches, static textbook diagrams, and conventional explanations, particularly in Geometry and Isometric Transformations. Such practices may limit students’ opportunities to actively explore geometric concepts through dynamic visualization and interactive learning experiences, consequently affecting their spatial visualization and conceptual understanding [17, 18, 19, 31].
Although previous studies have explored the use of technology-assisted learning approaches in Geometry education, limited studies have specifically examined mobile Augmented Reality (AR)-based learning modules for Isometric Transformations within the Malaysian secondary school context. Existing approaches often focus on general geometry learning without specifically addressing students’ spatial visualization difficulties, and motivational challenges in Isometric Transformations. AR technology enables students to interact with virtual geometric objects in real-time, allowing abstract geometric concepts to be visualized more concretely and dynamically during learning activities.
In contrast, mobile devices such as smartphones provide flexible and practical access to learning resources, yet the potential of mobile AR learning for Isometric Transformations remains underexplored. To address this gap, this study develops and evaluates ISOMAR, a mobile AR learning module, and examines its effectiveness in improving Form 2 students’ achievement and motivation.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
The integration of digital technology in mathematics education has created new opportunities to support students’ conceptual understanding, spatial reasoning, and motivation, particularly in abstract topics such as Geometry [1–3]. In line with 21st-century educational demands, AR has gained increasing attention as a tool for creating meaningful and immersive learning experiences.
Technology-based learning modules are increasingly valued for their flexibility, interactivity, and accessibility. Multimedia modules can integrate dynamic visualizations, animations, and simulations to support students’ understanding effectively [20]. In particular, AR enables learners to visualize abstract concepts, explore transformations dynamically, and interact directly with virtual objects in real-world environments [21].
Previous studies reported that AR can improve students’ achievement, motivation, spatial visualization, and conceptual understanding in mathematics and geometry learning [3, 21–24, 46–48]. Mobile AR allows students to observe and manipulate geometric objects dynamically through handheld devices, supporting visual thinking and spatial reasoning processes. Studies also suggest that AR may enhance learning not merely through technological novelty, but through dynamic visualization, real-time interaction, and active manipulation of abstract mathematical objects.
However, findings remain inconsistent. While many studies reported positive effects on motivation and engagement, improvements in academic performance were sometimes only moderate or comparable to conventional approaches [13]. This suggests that AR effectiveness depends on factors such as instructional design quality, pedagogical integration, interactivity, and suitability for specific learning tasks.
In addition, various approaches, including game-based learning, physical manipulatives, and dynamic mathematics software such as GeoGebra, have shown positive effects on students’ motivation and achievement in Isometric Transformations [25–30]. Nevertheless, these approaches remain limited in terms of accessibility, scalability, classroom dependency, and immersive spatial interaction [31]. Although flipped classroom approaches may enhance higher-order thinking skills [32], they also rely heavily on students’ access to digital resources and readiness for self-directed learning.
Overall, previous studies demonstrate the potential of AR and technology-assisted learning in mathematics education. However, limited research has focused specifically on how AR supports spatial visualization and conceptual understanding in Isometric Transformations through structured, curriculum-aligned learning modules. Most studies evaluated standalone AR applications rather than comprehensive instructional modules integrating pedagogical guidance, exploratory activities, assessments, and learning objectives. These gaps highlight the need for a comprehensive AR-based learning module to address students’ procedural weaknesses, visualization difficulties, and motivational challenges in Isometric Transformations within the Malaysian secondary school context.
III. METHODS
A. Publication overview and the top 10 cited papers
This study employs the Design and Development Research (DDR) methodology, established by [33] and widely used in educational development research, especially for developing models, modules, and instructional designs. This DDR framework comprises three phases: needs analysis, design and development, and assessment.
1) Phase 1: Need analysis
The needs analysis phase was conducted to identify the needs for developing an AR-based learning module on Isometric Transformations in the context of Form 2 Mathematics. This analysis was conducted qualitatively through semi-structured interviews with five secondary school Mathematics specialist teachers. The findings demonstrate that Isometric Transformations are identified as a critical and challenging topic, notably because students struggle to grasp the processes of translation, reflection, and rotation when instruction focuses on static images and traditional explanations. This finding aligns with research on student achievement in international examinations such as TIMSS and PISA, which show substantial deficits in Geometry [17, 18, 19]. This constraint not only affects conceptual understanding but also contributes to low levels of learning motivation.
Additionally, experts stress the significance of this subject as a basis for learning advanced mathematics and preparing for the SPM exam. In this regard, the need for learning modules that support dynamic visualization, self-directed learning, and active student engagement was identified as a priority. By offering dynamic visual components and real-time interaction that can raise student achievement and motivation, AR technology is seen to have the potential to meet this demand. A summary of the findings of the needs analysis is shown in Figure 1.
This result demonstrates that the limitations of spatial vision and a static teaching methodology are the cause of students’ difficulties comprehending Isometric Transformations. To further boost student achievement and motivation, the designed module emphasizes the use of AR technology to facilitate visualization, engagement, and self-exploration.
2) Phase 2: Design and Development Phase
The design and development phase of this study used the Fuzzy Delphi Method (FDM) to obtain expert consensus on the key elements to be implemented in the ISOMAR module. A survey of the literature on the use of AR in mathematics education and the teaching of Isometric Transformations served as the foundation for the module design, which was created based on the results of the needs analysis. The Sidek Module Development Model [37], which consists of five primary constructs, which are learning objectives, learning content, learning strategies, media selection, and implementation logistics, formed the basis for the module design elements. The evaluation involved 16 specialists in AR, visualization module development, and mathematics education. By employing fuzzy values, FDM lessens evaluation bias and enables the systematic collection of expert opinions.
The research instrument was developed based on a literature review and aligned with major learning theories, including the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning, Constructivism Theory, the 5E Model, and the Sidek Module Development Model. Each item was rated on a seven-point Likert scale and converted to triangular fuzzy numbers to ensure the accuracy and consistency of the analysis. With a threshold value (d) of less than 0.2, an agreement level of more than 75%, and a defuzzification value of more than 0.5, the analysis found that all constructs attained a high degree of expert consensus. These findings demonstrate that every component of the ISOMAR module is applicable, useful, and appropriate for secondary school instruction on Isometric Transformations. An overview of the results for this phase is presented in Table I.
TABLE I. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS OF THE DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT
| Construct | No. of Item | Defuzzification Value | Consensus |
|---|---|---|---|
| Setting Objectives | 4 | 0.849 | Accepted |
| Selecting Content | 8 | 0.863 | Accepted |
| Learning strategy | 11 | 0.887 | Accepted |
| Logistics Selection | 4 | 0.908 | Accepted |
| Media Selection | 5 | 0.924 | Accepted |
Overall, this phase ensured that the ISOMAR module was developed systematically based on learning needs, expert consensus, and established pedagogical theories, thereby strengthening its potential to improve students’ achievement and motivation in learning Isometric Transformations.
To support the module implementation, a mobile AR application was developed specifically for the topic of Isometric Transformations. The application provided interactive visualization, real-time object manipulation, and guided exploratory learning activities aligned with the Malaysian Form 2 Mathematics curriculum. It was developed using Flutter and Android Studio, while Canva was used to design instructional layouts, icons, and interface elements. The application functioned offline on Android tablets and smartphones during classroom implementation.
The AR environment was designed based on the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning, Constructivist Learning Theory, and the 5E Learning Model. Multimedia principles such as spatial contiguity, temporal contiguity, and coherence were applied to reduce cognitive load and improve conceptual understanding.
The application included several key features: clearly stated learning objectives, interactive AR visualization of geometric transformations, animated procedural explanations, exploratory manipulation activities, formative assessments with immediate feedback, and real-life application tasks to enhance relevance and motivation. A marker-based AR approach was implemented to enable students to activate virtual transformation objects and animations by scanning printed markers, while simple interaction design and consistent instructional prompts improved usability for secondary school students.
3）Phase 3: Evaluation Phase
The evaluation phase aimed to assess the validity and effectiveness of the ISOMAR module. Following the development of the module and AR application, content validation was conducted through expert evaluations to ensure the appropriateness of the content, teaching strategies, and learning elements in relation to curriculum requirements and students’ learning levels.
Next, the effectiveness of the module was evaluated through a quasi-experimental study conducted in a Malaysian secondary school. Using simple random sampling, the state, school, and three out of seven Form 2 classes were selected. The study involved 95 students studying Isometric Transformations, with the selected classes randomly assigned to the ISOMAR group (experimental group 1), the ISOMAX group (experimental group 2), and the conventional (control group).
The intervention was conducted over eight weeks, following the instructional duration allocated for Isometric Transformations in the secondary school mathematics curriculum, with one-hour sessions per week. Prior to implementation, training sessions were provided to the teacher to ensure proper understanding of the instructional procedures and module usage. To minimize teacher variability and ensure consistent implementation, the same teacher conducted all three classes.
During the intervention, students participated in learning sessions based on the instructional approach assigned to each group. This design enabled systematic comparisons of the effectiveness of the ISOMAR module on students’ achievement and motivation relative to the ISOMAX module (without AR) and the conventional method. ISOMAR and ISOMAX were structurally equivalent in terms of content, activities, and task completion time; however, ISOMAR delivered notes, concept explanations, examples, exploratory activities, and formative assessments through AR.
Android tablets were provided to all students during the implementation sessions, with the application pre-installed prior to the lessons. Students accessed the AR features individually, and observational records indicated that all students used the application successfully without difficulty. The AR application functioned fully offline; therefore, no internet connectivity issues were encountered during the intervention.
B. Data Collection and Analysis
Student achievement was measured using researcher-developed achievement tests, while motivation was measured using the Instructional Materials Motivation Survey (IMMS). The pre- and post-tests were specifically designed for the topic of Isometric Transformations based on the Malaysian Form 2 Mathematics curriculum standards and aligned with a Table of Specifications (JSU) incorporating the revised Bloom’s Taxonomy cognitive levels of knowledge, understanding, and application (refer Table II). The items were also distributed across varying difficulty levels (easy, moderate, and difficult). The pre-test was administered before the intervention, while the post-test was administered after the intervention.
TABLE II. DISTRIBUTION OF ACHIEVEMENT TEST ITEMS BASED ON REVISED BLOOM’S TAXONOMY AND CURRICULUM SPECIFICATIONS
| Test | Cognitive Level | Easy | Moderate | Difficult | Total |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pre | Knowledge | 2 | – | – | 2 |
| Understanding | 1 | 7 | – | 8 | |
| Application | – | 1 | 3 | 4 | |
| Post | Knowledge | 16 | – | – | 16 |
| Understanding | – | 7 | – | 7 | |
| Application | – | – | 5 | 5 |
The pre-test assessed prerequisite knowledge related to coordinates and polygons, while the post-test covered the subtopics of translation, reflection, rotation, and rotational symmetry. The distribution of items across cognitive levels and content domains ensured balanced assessment coverage and content validity.
The achievement tests were first reviewed by subject-matter experts and experienced mathematics teachers to ensure their appropriateness for the Malaysian secondary school curriculum and learning context. For the IMMS, the instrument was translated and adapted into the Malay language for use with Malaysian secondary school students. The adaptation process involved expert review to ensure linguistic clarity, cultural appropriateness, and alignment with the local mathematics classroom context without altering the original motivational constructs. Subsequently, face, content, and construct validity were evaluated by three experts in quantitative research, and the Content Validity Index (CVI) was calculated based on their evaluations. Minor modifications to wording and sentence structure were made to improve students’ comprehension and ensure consistency with terminology commonly used in Malaysian secondary school mathematics instruction.
Subsequently, the reliability of the achievement tests and the IMMS was established through a pilot study involving 60 students with characteristics similar to the actual sample. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were 0.767 for the pre-test and 0.901 for the IMMS, indicating acceptable to high internal consistency. For both achievement tests, item analysis during the pilot study included item difficulty and discrimination index analyses. Several items identified as excessively difficult or having low discrimination indices were revised prior to the actual study to improve test quality and suitability for the target population.
Achievement and motivation data were analyzed using ANCOVA and MANOVA to examine group differences while controlling for covariates and assessing multiple motivation constructs simultaneously [35, 36]. Data collection during the intervention was conducted by the teacher responsible for the participating classes, while the researcher performed the data analysis.
IV. FINDINGS
A. Features in the ISOMAR Module
The ISOMAR module was developed based on expert consensus during the design and development phase by integrating visual elements, object movement animations, interactive activities, and immediate assessment and feedback. Experts identified these features as important elements to support students’ understanding of Isometric Transformations and maintain students’ active engagement throughout the learning process, thus enabling meaningful application of mathematical concepts in real learning contexts. Figure 2 shows an example of the ISOMAR module display and AR application.
The AR application utilized marker-based interaction, where students scanned printed markers using Android tablets to activate and manipulate virtual geometric objects in real time. Students could rotate objects, observe transformations from multiple perspectives, and replay animations based on their learning pace. The application incorporated labelled coordinates, directional arrows, color-coded transformation paths, and animated indicators to support understanding of object orientation and positional changes. Guided prompts, instructional scaffolding, and immediate feedback during quizzes and exploration activities were also included to reinforce conceptual understanding and reduce misconceptions. Overall, the ISOMAR module was designed to address learning challenges in Isometric Transformations through structured visual support aimed at enhancing students’ achievement and motivation.
B. Validity of ISOMAR Module
Four experts in mathematics education conducted the validation of the ISOMAR module. The validation process included two main aspects, namely face validity and content validity, to ensure that the developed module was clear, appropriate, and aligned with the learning objectives. The CVI was calculated based on the experts’ evaluations using the percentage method proposed by [37], in which validity values exceeding 70% were considered good and acceptable.
The ISOMAR module achieved high face and content validity, with validity percentages of 97.32% (CVI = 0.97) and 98.39% (CVI = 0.98), respectively, indicating that the module content was relevant, accurate, and suitable for use [37].
C. The Effectiveness of the ISOMAR Module on Achievement
The effectiveness of the ISOMAR module was evaluated on student achievement in Isometric Transformations, involving 95 students from three classes in a state in Malaysia: ISOMAR (n = 32), ISOMAX (n = 31), and control (n = 32).
The achievement test included subjective items requiring students to perform and explain geometric transformations such as translation, reflection, and rotation, and to determine object orientation after transformation. Figure 3 shows an example of the test question.
Fig. 3. Examples of achievement test items.
kurtosis, histograms, boxplots, and Q-Q plots, all of which indicated normality. Levene’s test also showed a violation of the assumption of homogeneity of variance, F(2, 92) = 3.466, p = .035. However, this violation did not affect the analysis because the group sizes were balanced (ratio of 1.03), which is well below the recommended limit of 1.5 [38]. In addition, the scatter plot showed a linear, positive relationship between the pre-test and post-test scores, indicating that the linearity assumption was met.
Table III shows that the ISOMAR group achieved the highest post-test scores, followed by the ISOMAX and control groups, indicating the greater effectiveness of the AR-based learning approach.
TABLE III MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATION OF POST-TEST SCORES BETWEEN GROUPS
| Group | Mean | SD |
|---|---|---|
| ISOMAR | 43.48 | 7.426 |
| ISOMAX | 29.48 | 9.288 |
| Control | 21.28 | 5.262 |
An ANCOVA analysis (Table IV) was conducted to assess the mean difference between groups while controlling for the covariate, namely pre-test scores, to ensure that achievement comparisons were fair and accurate.
TABLE IV ANCOVA TEST RESULTS FOR POST-TEST BY GROUP
| Source | F | p | Partial η² |
|---|---|---|---|
| Pre Test | 4.321 | .040 | .045 |
| Group | 47.577 | <.001 | .511 |
*R Squared = .625 (Adjusted R Squared = .613) *Significant at p<.01
The ANCOVA results showed a significant difference in post-test scores across the learning groups after controlling for pre-test scores, F(2, 91) = 47.577, p < .001, with a large effect size (η² = .511). To identify pairs of groups that showed significant differences after the ANCOVA analysis, a Pairwise Comparison test was performed using the Bonferroni method. Table V presents the test results.
TABLE V PAIRWISE COMPARISON TEST RESULTS USING PAIRWISE COMPARISON
| Comparison | Mean Difference | SE | p |
|---|---|---|---|
| ISOMAR vs ISOMAX | 13.075* | 1.894 | <.001 |
| ISOMAR vs Control | 19.967* | 2.104 | <.001 |
| ISOMAX vs Control | 6.892* | 1.958 | .002 |
*Significant at p<.05
Bonferroni pairwise comparisons showed that the ISOMAR group scored significantly higher than both the ISOMAX and control groups, while the ISOMAX group also outperformed the control group (Table V). Overall, ISOMAR was the most effective method, followed by ISOMAX, while the conventional method showed the lowest achievement.
D. The Effectiveness of the ISOMAR Module on Motivation
Similar to the achievement test analysis, normality testing was first conducted, and the results indicated that the motivation data were normally distributed. Levene’s Test further showed that the assumptions of homogeneity of variance were met for most constructs, namely relevance (p = .208), confidence (p = .953), and satisfaction (p = .801). Although the attention construct showed a slight violation (p = .060), the analysis was still considered appropriate due to the balanced group sizes (ratio 1.03), consistent with the recommendation of [38].
To ensure the suitability of the multivariate analysis, Box’s M Test was also conducted and yielded non-significant results (Box’s M = 16.545, F = 0.775, p = .747), indicating that the assumption of homogeneity of the covariance matrix was satisfied. Therefore, MANOVA was conducted to examine the effects of the intervention on student motivation. Table VI presents the mean scores and standard deviations for the motivational constructs of attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction according to teaching methods.
As shown in Table VI, students in the ISOMAR group demonstrated consistently higher motivation scores across all IMMS constructs than those in the ISOMAX and conventional groups.
TABLE VI MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATION OF MOTIVATIONAL CONSTRUCTS BY GROUP
| Construct | ISOMAR M(SD) | ISOMAX M(SD) | Conventional M(SD) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Attention | 3.78 (.44) | 3.26 (.40) | 3.26 (.30) |
| Relevance | 3.76 (.42) | 3.30 (.41) | 3.29 (.35) |
| Confidence | 3.82 (.42) | 3.28 (.45) | 3.27 (.41) |
| Satisfaction | 3.78 (.48) | 3.32 (.45) | 3.27 (.46) |
These descriptive findings were further examined using MANOVA. Based on Table VII, the multivariate analysis using Pillai’s Trace showed a significant overall effect of teaching method on motivation.
TABLE VII MULTIVARIATE (PILLAI’S TRACE) MOTIVATION TEST RESULT
| Effect | Value | F | df | p | Partial η² |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Group | 0.32 | 4.293 | (8,180) | <.001 | 0.16 |
*Significant at p<.05
The significant multivariate effect justified further between-subjects analyses for each motivational construct. The between-subjects analysis revealed significant effects of teaching method across all motivational constructs, with partial η² values indicating moderate practical effects (Table VIII).
TABLE VIII BETWEEN-SUBJECT EFFECT TEST OF MOTIVATION
| Construct | F | p | Partial η² |
|---|---|---|---|
| Attention | 19.27 | <.001 | 0.295 |
| Relevance | 15.043 | <.001 | 0.246 |
| Confidence | 16.95 | <.001 | 0.269 |
| Satisfaction | 11.772 | <.001 | 0.204 |
*R Squared = .295 (Adjusted R Squared = .280); R Squared = .246 (Adjusted R Squared = .230); R Squared = .269 (Adjusted R Squared = .253); R Squared = .204 (Adjusted R Squared = .186)
Bonferroni post hoc analysis showed that the ISOMAR group scored significantly higher than both the ISOMAX and control groups across all motivational constructs (p < .001), whereas no significant differences were found between the ISOMAX and control groups.
V. DISCUSSION
This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of the ISOMAR module on student achievement and motivation in Isometric Transformations. Overall, the study’s findings show that the ISOMAR module is not only valid in terms of content and design but also has a significant and meaningful impact on student academic achievement and motivation compared to ISOMAX and to conventional teaching methods. These findings support the need for a pedagogical approach based on AR technology that addresses the abstract nature of Isometric Transformations.
From a face validity perspective, the expert assessment findings showed a high validity coefficient, indicating that the ISOMAR module has a very good level of clarity, comprehensibility, and presentation suitability for Form 2 students. This assessment includes aspects of language, consistent use of Mathematical terminology, spelling and punctuation accuracy, as well as coherence between text, images, audio, and animation in the AR environment. This finding shows that the information is presented clearly, not confusing, and user-friendly, thus supporting students’ understanding of the learning content.
In addition, the experts confirmed that the integration of AR elements in the ISOMAR module adheres to the principles of effective multimedia presentation, such as avoiding irrelevant elements, emphasizing important information visually, and coordinating text, audio, and visuals in time. These elements help focus students’ attention on the main concept of Isometric Transformations without excessive cognitive distraction. Thus, from a face validity perspective, the ISOMAR module is found to be suitable not only in terms of its external appearance but also in the way information is presented to support the learning process effectively. This assessment is important because [33] emphasized that the validity of the design and presentation is an essential prerequisite for evaluating an educational intervention effectively and reliably.
In terms of student achievement, the ANCOVA analysis showed that the ISOMAR group recorded significantly higher post-test scores than the ISOMAX and control groups, after controlling for pre-test scores, with a large effect size. This finding reinforces empirical evidence that the use of AR in Mathematics learning can improve understanding, especially in the geometry domain. These results support previous studies that reported increased student achievement through the use of AR in Mathematics and STEM learning [23, 24, 39].
The effectiveness of the ISOMAR module compared to ISOMAX shows that the presence of AR elements provides significant added value to learning. Although the ISOMAX module provides a structured learning environment, the findings show that dynamic visual support and real-time interaction in AR enable students to better understand the concepts of translation, reflection, and rotation. This aligns with the multimedia learning theory [20], which states that learning is more effective when information is presented through a combination of visual and verbal channels that complement each other.
In addition, these findings also support the studies of [4] and [40], which emphasize that spatial visualization skills can be improved through appropriate training and exposure. Through AR interaction, students can manipulate geometric objects directly and observe their positions and orientations from various viewpoints. This learning experience helps students build stronger mental images than static representations do, thereby contributing to a larger increase in achievement in the ISOMAR group. The ability to observe transformations dynamically may also reduce the abstraction of geometric concepts and support students’ mental rotation processes during problem solving.
Although the ISOMAX group achieved better results than the control group, the significant difference between ISOMAR and ISOMAX indicates that learning effectiveness depends not only on the module’s use but also on the level of interactivity and visual support provided. This finding aligns with studies by [22], [23] and [24], which found that the use of AR in Mathematics education has a positive impact on students’ academic achievement.
In terms of motivation, the results showed that the teaching method had a significant impact on students’ overall motivation across the four IMMS constructs. Students in the ISOMAR group consistently reported higher motivation scores than those in the ISOMAX and control groups across all constructs. This finding supports previous studies that have reported that AR-based technology can increase student engagement and motivation through more interesting and meaningful learning experiences [22, 41, 42].
In the attention construct, the use of dynamic, interactive visual elements in the ISOMAR module helps attract and maintain student focus throughout the learning process. This finding aligns with the study by [43], which found that AR-based learning increases students’ attention and focus on learning content. The ability of students to interact directly with virtual objects makes learning more active compared to conventional teaching methods.
For the relevance construct, the use of AR allows students to visually and contextually relate the concept of Isometric Transformations to real-world applications. When students can see the relationship between mathematical concepts and real situations, they better understand the importance of the content. Meanwhile, for the satisfaction construct, students in the ISOMAR group reported higher levels of learning satisfaction, likely due to a more enjoyable learning experience and their successful understanding of previously difficult concepts. This finding aligns with [13], who found that immersive technology has the potential to increase student engagement and satisfaction in geometry learning.
For the confidence construct, the opportunity to explore concepts independently through AR activities and interactive exercises helps students build confidence in their ability to solve Mathematical problems. This finding aligns with [14], who reported that AR use in an educational context can increase students’ confidence in learning. Students become more confident because they can try, correct mistakes, and understand concepts step by step.
Overall, this study’s findings show that the ISOMAR module has a more comprehensive and consistent impact on student achievement and motivation than modules without AR or conventional methods. AR integration not only supports understanding of the abstract concept of Isometric Transformations, but also increases attention, the connection between learning content and daily situations, confidence, and student satisfaction, in line with the findings of previous studies in the field of technology-based Mathematics education [22, 23, 44]. The effectiveness of ISOMAR may also be attributed to its instructional and interaction design rather than technological novelty alone. Features such as guided visualization, labelled transformation cues, animated procedural demonstrations, and immediate feedback likely supported students’ spatial reasoning and reduced cognitive difficulties during geometry learning.
VI. CONCLUSION
Overall, this study shows that developing an AR-based learning module on Isometric Transformations can significantly improve student achievement and motivation in practice. The ISOMAR module, which was systematically developed based on needs analysis, expert views, and support from current learning theories, has proven to be more effective than the non-AR technology module and conventional teaching methods. This finding underscores that the ISOMAR module’s effectiveness stems from its use of AR, which allows students to visualize and manipulate the concept of Isometric Transformations directly, thereby making learning more concrete, meaningful, and engaging.
This study also extends previous research on the use of AR in Mathematics education by focusing specifically on the added value of AR itself. In contrast to most previous studies that evaluate the effects of AR in general, this study compares the AR-based module (ISOMAR) with a non-AR module (ISOMAX) that is equivalent in terms of content and structure. This approach allows the true role of AR to be more clearly assessed. The study’s results show that dynamic visualization, object manipulation, and real-time interaction in the ISOMAR module help students process concepts more effectively, especially for abstract geometric topics. This further contributes to the consistent increase in student achievement and motivational engagement across all IMMS construct.
The findings suggest that the effectiveness of the ISOMAR module may be attributed not only to the novelty of AR technology, but also to underlying cognitive and instructional mechanisms supported by the AR learning environment. The module likely enhanced students’ mental modeling and spatial visualization by enabling real-time observation and manipulation of geometric transformations, thereby reducing cognitive difficulty and strengthening conceptual understanding.
In addition, animated and labeled visual cues may have reduced conceptual misinterpretation by helping students interpret transformation direction, rotation angles, and object orientation more accurately than static textbook representations. The module also promoted active and exploratory learning, as students could manipulate objects independently, repeat animations, and learn at their own pace, consistent with constructivist learning principles.
Furthermore, immediate feedback, interactive exploration tasks, and real-life application activities may have contributed to higher motivation by making abstract geometric concepts more concrete, meaningful, and accessible.
Specifically, this study contributes to the literature in three main areas: theoretical, pedagogical, and design contributions to AR-based learning modules. From a theoretical perspective, the findings of this study support the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning by showing that combining visual elements, text, and AR interactions can help students build a clearer understanding without overloading their cognitive capacity. At the same time, these findings align with the principles of constructivism and the 5E Learning Model, which emphasize student involvement in exploring, manipulating, and building conceptual understanding through meaningful learning experiences. The use of AR in this context provides students with the opportunity to manipulate objects rather than imagine them abstractly.
From a pedagogical perspective, this study provides evidence that well-designed AR modules can support self-directed learning, increase student engagement, and promote intrinsic motivation in Mathematics learning. From a design perspective, this study proposes an AR module development approach based on the DDR model, serving as a practical guide for educators and researchers in developing mobile learning materials.
However, this study has several limitations. First, the study was conducted in a single school and focused only on the topic of Isometric Transformations, which may limit the generalizability of the findings. Future studies should involve larger and more diverse samples and examine additional variables such as spatial visualization skills, Higher Order Thinking Skills, and long-term learning retention.
In addition, the study focused primarily on achievement and motivation outcomes without directly examining students’ cognitive processes during AR interaction. Qualitative and process-based data, such as think-aloud protocols, behavioral observations, screen interaction logs, or eye-tracking data, were not collected. Consequently, the cognitive mechanisms underlying the effectiveness of the ISOMAR module could only be inferred from instructional design features and quantitative findings. Future research should therefore incorporate qualitative and process-oriented approaches to provide deeper insights into students’ cognitive and behavioral interactions within AR learning environments.
In summary, this study provides strong empirical evidence that AR-based learning modules, especially ISOMAR, have the potential to serve as an innovative and sustainable pedagogical approach for supporting 21st-century Mathematics learning. This module is particularly suitable for geometry topics that require a high level of spatial visualization and can help students not only understand the concepts better but also be more motivated to learn Mathematics.
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Authors
Noorul Shuhadah Osman
is currently pursuing a PhD in Educational Technology at Universiti Putra Malaysia. She received her Master’s degree in Computer Science (Multimedia Computing) from Universiti Putra Malaysia. Her research interests include educational technology, augmented reality, mathematics education, and mobile learning.
Prof. Dr. Ahmad Fauzi Mohd Ayub
is a Professor at the Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia. His research interests include educational technology, mathematics education, mobile learning, and augmented reality.
Dr. Jazihan Mahat
is a Senior Lecturer at the Department of Science and Technical Education, Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia. Her research interests include Educational Technology, Artificial Intelligence in Education, Digital Learning Environments, and Emerging Learning Technologies.
Dr. Nurul Nadwa Zulkifli
is a Senior Lecturer at the Faculty of Humanities, Management and Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia. Her research interests include educational technology, online and blended learning, immersive learning, collaborative learning, multimedia integration, and mathematics education.